AP US Government — campaign finance, linkage institutions and the media

The second half of Unit 5 of AP United States Government and Politics looks at the institutions that connect citizens to government between and during elections: parties, interest groups, elections and the media, which the course calls linkage institutions. It also looks at the money that flows through campaigns. Campaign finance is where students most often confuse terms (hard and soft money, PACs and super PACs, contributions and independent expenditures), and the media section asks for explanation rather than recall. This material covers both.

The quiz traces the law in the order it developed: the 'Stand by Your Ad' line added by the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002, the difference between hard and soft money, what a traditional PAC may and may not do, and the rules for a super PAC after Citizens United and SpeechNow.org in 2010 (unlimited money, independent spending, disclosure, no coordination). It asks which two values the argument over money in politics sets against each other. It then covers modern campaigns and how parties adapted to candidate-centered politics by becoming suppliers of data, money and mobilization. The media questions cover agenda setting, the criticism of horse-race coverage, a voter who hears only outlets that share her views, a fair statement of the several debates over media bias and ownership, and the defining feature of a linkage institution.

The flashcards cover each term and case, with the super PAC and Citizens United cards written to keep contributions and independent spending apart.

The written work asks for eight explanations: the four linkage institutions and how one of them works; the 2002 reform law and how the 2010 decisions changed it; traditional PACs set against super PACs; the free speech and fair elections arguments over campaign money; how modern campaigns have changed; why campaigns became candidate-centered and how parties adapted; agenda setting and horse-race coverage; and the growth of media choice together with the debate over bias.

The oral exam gives you a short situation, such as an advertisement, a committee raising money or a news cycle, and asks you to name and explain what is at work.

Dollar limits on contributions change from one cycle to the next, so none are quoted here. The arguments over money in politics and over media bias are each given as their proponents make them, and neither side is endorsed.

• Define linkage institutions and explain how each connects citizens to policymakers
• Explain the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act and how Citizens United and SpeechNow.org changed campaign finance
• Distinguish hard and soft money, traditional PACs and super PACs, contributions and independent expenditures
• State the free speech and fair elections arguments over money in politics
• Explain candidate-centered campaigns and how parties adapted
• Explain agenda setting, horse-race coverage and the effects of changing media

Practice material written by Zestly, based on the College Board AP United States Government and Politics Course and Exam Description (course framework effective fall 2026), Unit 5 topics 5.3, 5.4 and 5.10 to 5.13 and the required case Citizens United v. FEC.